G.1.1

Describe and explain the electrophilic addition mechanisms of the reactions of alkenes with halogens and hydrogen halides.

3

Include the application of Markovnikov’s rule to predict the major product in the reactions of unsymmetrical alkenes with unsymmetrical reagents.

G.1.2

Predict and explain the formation of the major product in terms of the relative stabilities of carbocations.

3

G.2.1

Describe, using equations, the addition of hydrogen cyanide to aldehydes and ketones.

2

G.2.2

Describe and explain the mechanism for the addition of hydrogen cyanide to aldehydes and ketones.

3

G.2.3

Describe, using equations, the hydrolysis of cyanohydrins to form carboxylic acids.

2

G.3.1

Describe, using equations, the dehydration reactions of alcohols with phosphoric acid to form alkenes.

2

G.3.2

Describe and explain the mechanism for the elimination of water from alcohols.

3

Use H+ to represent the acid catalyst.

G.4.1

Describe, using equations, the reactions of 2,4‑dinitrophenylhydrazine with aldehydes and ketones.

2

Mechanisms will not be assessed.

G.5.1

Describe and explain the structure of benzene using physical and chemical evidence.

3

TOK: See 14.3.1.

For physical evidence, include a comparison of carbon–carbon bond lengths in alkanes, alkenes and benzene, and the number of structural isomers with the formula C6H4X2.

For chemical evidence, include a comparison of the enthalpies of hydrogenation of benzene, cyclohexene, 1,3‑cyclohexadiene and 1,3,5-cyclohexatriene, and the tendency of benzene to undergo substitution rather than addition reactions.

G.5.2

Describe and explain the relative rates of hydrolysis of benzene compounds halogenated in the ring and in the side-chain.

3

Only the reactions with the OH– ion will be assessed.

G.6.1

Outline the formation of Grignard reagents.

2

Include the reaction of halogenoalkanes with magnesium metal.

G.6.2

Describe, using equations, the reactions of Grignard reagents with water, carbon dioxide, aldehydes and ketones.

2

Emphasize the formation of organic molecules with an increased number of carbon atoms.

G.7.1

Deduce reaction pathways given the starting materials and the product.

3

Conversions with more than two stages will not be assessed.

Reagents, conditions and equations should be included.

G.8.1

Describe and explain the acidic properties of phenol and substituted phenols in terms of bonding.

3

Include a comparison of the acidities of alcohols, phenol and 2,4,6‑trinitrophenol.

G.8.2

Describe and explain the acidic properties of substituted carboxylic acids in terms of bonding.

3

G.8.3

Compare and explain the relative basicities of ammonia and amines.

3

Include primary, secondary and tertiary amines.

Include the formation of salts from amines and the liberation of amines from salts using sodium hydroxide.

G.9.1

Describe, using equations, the reactions of acid anhydrides with nucleophiles to form carboxylic acids, esters, amides and substituted amides.

2

Include the nucleophiles: water, alcohols, ammonia and amines.

Aspirin and paracetamol can be made using reactions of this type.

G.9.2

Describe, using equations, the reactions of acyl chlorides with nucleophiles to form carboxylic acids, esters, amides and substituted amides.

2

Include the nucleophiles: water, alcohols, ammonia and amines.

G.9.3

Explain the reactions of acyl chlorides with nucleophiles in terms of an addition–elimination mechanism.

3

G.10.1

Describe, using equations, the nitration, chlorination, alkylation and acylation of benzene.

2

Include the use of for the benzene ring as well as formulas such as C6H5NO2.

The introduction of more than one group into the benzene ring will not be assessed here.

G.10.2

Describe and explain the mechanisms for the nitration, chlorination, alkylation and acylation of benzene.

3

Include the formation of NO2+ from the reaction between concentrated nitric and sulfuric acids, and the formation of Cl+, R+ and RCO+ from reactions involving aluminium chloride as a halogen carrier catalyst.

G.10.3

Describe, using equations, the nitration, chlorination, alkylation and acylation of methylbenzene.

2

G.10.4

Describe and explain the directing effects and relative rates of reaction of different substituents on a benzene ring.

3

Include the substituents –CH3, –OH and –NO2.

Include the terms activating and deactivating.

Only the introduction of one further group will be assessed, except for the formation of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol.

The directing effects can be explained in terms of the charge distribution of the intermediates. The slightly increased reactivity due to the presence of –CH3 can be explained in terms of its electron-releasing nature. The greatly increased reactivity due to the presence of –OH can be explained in terms of its partial donation of a non-bonded electron pair. The decreased reactivity due to the presence of –NO2 can be explained in terms of its electron-withdrawing nature and lack of a non-bonded electron pair.